Definition and Examples of Diachronic Linguistics

Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through different periods in history. Diachronic linguistics is one of the two main temporal dimensions of language study identified by Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure in his Course in General Linguistics (1916). The other is synchronic linguistics. The terms diachrony  and synchrony  refer, respectively, to an evolutionary phase of language and to a language state.  In reality, says  Thà ©ophile Obenga, diachronic and synchronic linguistics interlock (Genetic Linguistic Connections of Ancient Egypt and the Rest of Africa, 1996). Observations Diachronic literally means across-time, and it describes any work which maps the shifts and fractures and mutations of languages over the centuries. In gross outline, it is similar to evolutionary biology, which maps the shifts and transformations of rocks. Synchronic literally means with-time, though etymology is misleading here, since Saussures term describes an atemporal linguistics, linguistics which proceeds without time, which abstracts away from the effects of the ages and studies language at a given, frozen moment.(Randy Allen Harris, The Linguistic Wars. Oxford University Press, 1993) Diachronic Studies of Language vs. Synchronic Studies - Diachronic linguistics is  the historical study of language, whereas synchronic linguistics is the geographic study of language. Diachronic linguistics refers to the study of how a language evolves over a period of time. Tracing the development of English from the Old English period  to the twentieth century is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language is a comparison of languages or dialects—various spoken differences of the same language—used within some defined spatial region and during the same period of time. Determining the regions of the United States in which people currently say pop rather than soda and idea rather than idear are examples of the types of inquiries pertinent to a synchronic study.(Colleen Elaine Donnelly,  Linguistics for Writers. State University of New York Press, 1994)-  Most of Saussures successors accepted the synchronic-diachronic distinction, which still survives robustly in twenty-first-century linguistics. In practice , what this means is that it is accounted a violation of principle or linguistic method to include in the same synchronic analysis evidence related to diachronically different states. So, for example, citing Shakespearean forms would be regarded as inadmissible in support of, say, an analysis of the grammar of Dickens. Saussure is particularly severe in his strictures upon linguists who conflate synchronic and diachronic facts.(Roy Harris, Linguists After Saussure. The Routledge Companion to Semiotics and Linguistics, ed. by Paul Cobley. Routledge, 2001) Diachronic Linguistics and Historical Linguistics   Ã¢â‚¬â€¹Language change is one of the subjects of historical linguistics, the subfield of linguistics that studies language in its historical aspects. Sometimes the term  diachronic linguistics is  used instead of historical linguistics, as a way of referring to the study of language (or languages) at various points in time and at various historical stages. (Adrian Akmajian, Richard A. Demer, Ann K. Farmer, and Robert M. Harnish,  Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication, 5th ed. The MIT Press, 2001)     For many scholars who would describe their field as historical linguistics, one legitimate target of research involves a focus not on change(s) over time but on the synchronic grammatical systems of earlier language stages. This practice can be called (not unrevealingly) old-time synchrony, and it has made its mark in the form of numerous studies providing synchronic analyses of particular syntactic constructions, word-formation processes, (morpho)phonological alternations, and the like for individual earlier (pre-modern or at least early modern) stages of languages. . . . Gaining as much synchronic information as possible about an earlier stage of a language must surely be viewed as a necessary prerequisite for doing serious work on the diachronic development of a language . . .. Nonetheless, pursuing the synchrony of earlier language states solely for the sake of (synchronic) theory-building.., as worthy a goal as it may be, does not count as doing historical linguistics in the literally dia-chronic (through-time) sense that we wish to develop here. At least in a technical sense, then, diachronic linguistics and historical linguistics are not synonymous, because only the latter includes research on old-time synchrony for its own sake, without any focus on language change. (Richard D. Janda and Brian D. Joseph, On Language, Change, and Language Change. The Handbook of Historical Linguistics, ed. by B. D. Joseph and R. D. Janda. Blackwell, 2003)

The Homework Review For Ba - 1719 Words

During the homework review for BA, I asked Pat closed questions to elicit key elements of his progress. I ask Pat questions such as â€Å"what does Anne do in her story to make her tasks more manageable?†[17:20], â€Å"which kinds of tasks need to be in each?† [14:47], â€Å"would that be more manageable?† [15:48], â€Å"are there any other tasks that would be really difficult?† [17:53], â€Å"would you feel comfortable looking at the next stage?† [18:49] and â€Å"why is it important to include specifics?† [19:51]. Asking questions such as these ensured that I gathered an understanding of Pat’s progress and knowledge. I was able to keep the session focused on Pat and fill his knowledge gaps - only when required – when his responses elucidated that there was a requirement for me to give information. Information giving is a key component of my role (Richards and Whyte 2011) and I feel I demonstrated this well and only when requir ed. This should only take place when it is evident that a patient requires the knowledge and closed questions allowed me to demonstrate this. Through the use of effective, patient-centred funnelling, I was able to place my focus on asking questions designed to bring Pat’s attention to the information he had access to (Hughes et al 2014). In treatment, it can be very easy to assume the expert role (Hughes et al 2014). Funnelling created a compassionate environment where Pat could examine his own progress and understanding, which promoted ownership (Hughes et al 2014). By doing so,Show MoreRelatedReflection Of My Performance During An Objective Structured Clinical Exam1289 Words   |  6 Pagesunder simulated conditions (Fidment 2012). For this OSCE, my competence in undertaking a treatment session with a patient was under examination. The treatment session I undertook involved discussing the patient’s progress with behavioural activation (BA), a cognitive-behavioural intervention used for people experiencing depression (Richards and Whyte 2011). When people become depressed, they experience a lack of motivation and energy, which can result in them cutting back on activities, neglectingRead MoreMy First Goal Is Just The Western Education857 Words   |  4 PagesHomework Assignment 1: Learning Plan 1. I think that my first goal is just the western education. In Russia, North American diploma or certificate is more valued than domestic education. Moreover, Canadian certificate helps me to find a better job in my country or in Europe. Today IT is in demand around the globe and I am happy that I choose this sphere 5 years ago. I have more than 4 years of experience in a system engineering and frontend development. Finally, I believe that this course helpsRead MoreFinancial Management676 Words   |  3 PagesFNCE 451 DDavis – Homework 4a – Review Questions 1. A 6-year Circular File bond pays interest of $82 annually and sells for $920 . What are its coupon rate, current yield, and yield to maturity? a. Coupon rate b. Current yield c. Yield to maturity _____________ %. ____________ %. ___________ %. 2: An example of a firms financing decision would be: A. acquisition of a competitive firm. B. how much to pay for a specific asset. C. the issuance of ten-year versus twenty-year bonds. D. whether orRead MoreHp Value Chain Analysis1389 Words   |  6 PagesInstructor: Dr. Richard T. Mpoyi Office Number: BAS N146 Phone: 615-898-5767 Email: richard.mpoyi@mtsu.edu Class Schedule Section No. Days Time Building Room BUAD 4980-03 MWF 11:30am – 12:25pm BAS S262 Office Hours* Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday – 12:00pm – 02:00pm 04:00pm – 05:00pm 12:00pm – 02:00pm – * Other hours: By appointment Course Expectations X Multiple-Choice Exams X Essay Tests X Written Homework X Written Papers/Cases X Internet Assignments X LibraryRead MoreQuestions On Children With Disabilities1476 Words   |  6 Pagesthought of physical textbooks. They can save trees and heavy School Bags. They are also more modern. 5. Can be used for Class Communication You can send 0uestions throughout the Class if you have a shy student. You can also send Questionnaires and Homework to your Class or Teacher. 6. Brilliant for viewing content It’s perfect for viewing content while mobile. It’s great for searching the web, watching clips, reading books and taking out research. 7. Great for Children with disabilities There areRead MoreChoices : Moral Development ( Kohlberg )1223 Words   |  5 PagesDaniella Pineda BA Social Science Education / Social Studies Education Fall 2017 Case #4 – Choices - Moral Development - (Kohlberg) Analysis: Feeling pressure from his authoritative father and from his friends Russell cheats and turns in an old test paper and is found out and is embarrassed in front of the entire class by Mr. Willow. Russell is at the conventional level of Kohlberg s Theory of Moral Developmental. As an eighth-grader, he has only recently entered this level which begins for mostRead MorePsychological Approaches Within Mental Health Nursing3213 Words   |  13 Pagesintervention in management of patients with depression. The outline will follow a chronological order of ABC analysis case formulation describing the patient’s main problems and the therapeutic approaches that may be adopted namely; Behavioural activation (BA), CBT and Inter-personal Therapy (IPT). Followed by a conclusion of the key points discussed. For the purpose of confidentiality the patient name has been changed to John as recommended by Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC (2008). The National InstituteRead MoreJsdgflka3918 Words   |  16 Pagescourse books and films. Learning Objective Students learn to independently analyze and compare and contrast literary and cinematic content using formal prose writing. âž ¢ Complete assigned homework. An example of homework assignments, other than the required reading, is bringing to class for a peer review workshop well-developed, word-processed drafts of your required course essays. Learning Objective: Students learn how to draft successful papers in stages; to respond critically and constructivelyRead MorePersonal Growth Within The Group2485 Words   |  10 Pageschildren obtaining an education. Howe (2005) stated communication between the parent and teacher needs to occur often to invite and encourage a level of trust, respect, and clarity. According to Jeynes (2003) communicating with school, assisting with homework, encouraging activities outside of school contributed to the benefit of the African Americans and Hispanics that has done well in school. A child whose parents lack a certain body of knowledge will less likely be motivated to do well or understandRead MoreIntroduction. The Benefits Of Training And Developing Teachers1870 Words   |  8 Pagesand student assessment among those noted by Biza et al. (2016) as being among those most worthy of focus in a summary publication written to coincide with the 13th International Congress on Mathematical Education (ICME-13) in Hamburg. Along with a review of previous studies to contextualise the four topics, personal observations are provided, along with qualitative data gained through individual interviews with students who have studies in both countries. This is in keeping with the view of Schweisfurth

Five States of Grief Lament For a Son

Question: 1. How does Wolterstorff find joy after his loss? 2. What is the meaning and significance of death in light of the Christian narrative? 3. How does the hope of the resurrection play a role in comforting Wolterstorff? Answer: Introduction: In every human beings life there are various stages that come across in response to an individuals experience from all walks of life. The loss of an individual due to illness or death caused naturally results to grief. There are generally five stages of grief model which was proposed by Elisabeth Kubler-Ross in the year 1969. Denial and Isolation: This is referred to as the first reaction of grief which is generally temporary in nature that leads to generate defense mechanism resulting in immediate state of shock. Anger: the next immediate pain that is reflected is of anger ness. This is directed at our deceased loved one. Bargaining: This state expresses an individuals level of controlling self emotions. Depression: there are two types of depression. The first one relates to practical implication to the loss and the second is more of private which prepare us to be separated from our loved ones. Acceptance: This state an individuals mark of bravery to accept the truth. It is marked by calmness and peace. 1. Wolterstorff found joy after his loss: In the book Lament for a Son, the author Nicholas Wolterstoff he describes his own life mystery as an author and not as a father. Wolterstoff explores his experience of irreversible loss and narrates how he lost his 25 year old son Eric in a mountain climbing accident. Though he realizes his grief and pain of loss but he believes that there are no words or phrases that could diminish the malevolence of death (Buras, 2015). This book is a true gift for those who are very emotional and gets demotivated after losing someone close. The author found joy after such a big loss when he decided to publish it in the hope of people who mourn for their griefs and losses. He resembled to universality. This book gives voice to many forms of losses. 2. Meaning and significance of death in light of the Christian narrative: According to the Biblical understanding death is something which is separation of immortal soul from the body. Death is caused when life of an individual is ceased down or it is a form of transition to a new form of life (Biblicalperspectives.com, 2015). The most significant part of death is considered as the resurrection of Jesus to his own disciples. Among Christian beliefs, death and resurrection are the two important activities on which the entire doctrine is based upon (www.BookRags.com, 2015). 3. Hope of the resurrection play a role in comforting Wolterstorff: In this book Lament for a Son the author believes solely on Jesus and he states that someday his son Eric will be alive in some form according to resurrection stated in the Bible. This point gave him a hope and strength to narrate the story of his life so that it would be a cause to those people who loses their self after they come across grief. This book gives an insight into a parents nightmare and also extends grace to the people who simply sit beside on mourning bench and they can be cared upon (Wolterstorff, 1987). Conclusion: It can be concluded that death is a natural phenomenon and can happen to anybody at any point of time. An individual must hold on to a support and try to overcome the waves of sorrows as soon as possible. References Barnes Noble, (2015).Lament for a Son. [online] Available at: https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/lament-for-a-son-nicholas-wolterstorff/1102010103?ean=9780802802941 [Accessed 27 Feb. 2015]. Biblicalperspectives.com, (2015).The Biblical View of Death. [online] Available at: https://www.biblicalperspectives.com/books/immortality_resurrection/4.htm [Accessed 27 Feb. 2015]. Buras, T. (2015).Loving Our Last Enemy. 1st ed. [ebook] Available at: https://www.baylor.edu/content/services/document.php/205048.pdf [Accessed 27 Feb. 2015]. Spong, J. (2014).Resurrection. [S.l.]: HarperCollins e-Books. Wolterstorff, N. (1987).Lament for a son. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans. www.BookRags.com, (2015).Lament for a Son Summary. [online] Available at: https://www.bookrags.com/studyguide-lament-for-a-son/#gsc.tab=0 [Accessed 27 Feb. 2015].

From autobiography to allegory free essay sample

Then I’m in Nova Scotia, in Grandmere and Grandpere’s kitchen, and Grandpere is sitting in   his rocking chair by the fire, telling me a story about when he was a teacher, about his   students, about when the twins were born, asking me about my school, my life,   remembering my name, remembering my last visit and eating chocolate-coated digestive cookies because that is what we always did. William Pinar (2011): â€Å"It is important to note that my conception of ‘reconstruction’ contrasts with its usages in historiography, that is, aiming to reconstruct the past ‘as it was’†¦ (50). Alyssa: What?!?! But, reconstructing the past is reconstructing the past! I want to reconstruct the   past! I want to be in Grammy’s living room, or talking to Grandpere when he remembered my name! You said I could reconstruct the past, you told me I could, and now you are telling me that I can’t†¦ Almost word for word, this was my experience reading Chapter 2, â€Å"From Autobiography to Allegory†, in William Pinar’s What is Curriculum Theory? After reading the first part of the chapter, outlining the concept of autobiography and its significance to curriculum theory and to the self, I found myself daydreaming about the past. In no time, I was in my recently deceased Grandmother’s presence again, or imagining the lucid state of my Grandfather, now suffering from dementia and residing in a nursing home. I was happy in these memories. Then William Pinar continued talking and ruined my state of happiness. So, I complained. I told him how angry I was at him, how happy I had been that I found validation for living within these past memories and how he ruined it for me. It was at this moment that I recognized that somehow without even realizing it, I had entered into a complicated conversation with William Pinar. Pinar (2011) describes a complicated conversation as a †¦conversation in which interlocutors are speaking not only among themselves but to those not present, not only to historical figures and unnamed peoples and places they may be studying, but to politicians and parents dead and alive, not to mention to the selves they have been, are in the process of becoming, and someday may become (43). My conversation included myself, past and present, William Pinar, my deceased Grandmother, and the past version of my Grandfather. Furthermore, the simple act of writing this paper brings you, the readers into the conversation as well. According to these terms, I would classify it as a ‘complicated conversation. ’ The more I delved into this thought, the more I realized how often I find myself entering into this kind of dialogue. Whether I am sitting on the bus, playing out a conversation with the person next to me based on the book they are reading, or sitting in the classroom discussing the response to a question based on the views of many a theorist, former teacher, or famous celebrity, or planning and imagining lessons plans for my future students based on something I am experiencing in the present day, or something I have experienced in the past, these are the voices, both real and imagined, continuously flowing through my thoughts. For the most part, these would be deemed daydreams, unwanted and unwelcomed imaginings in a classroom, or any setting where productive work is expected. But, according to Pinar, they are, instead, complicated conversations of curriculum. In following with the method of currere, the running of the course, they are a necessary part of understanding the curriculum through the understanding oneself (Pinar, 2011, pp. 44). By allowing these sorts of complicated conversations in the classroom, by allowing the students to discuss, to converse, to question,  the things they are learning, the texts they are reading, by allowing the students to actively engage in the curriculum presented to them, to bring their own narratives into the classroom, rather than merely sitting and listening; the responsibility of learning falls upon not only the teacher, but also the students. Furthermore, Pinar (2011) notes that a complicated conversations also serves as a â€Å"conversation with oneself [as a ‘private person’] and with others threaded through academic knowledge, an ongoing project of self-understanding in which one becomes mobilized for engagement in the world† (47). Although anchored in academic thought, these conversations are not meant to remain solely in the academic realm. They are meant to delve into personal narratives and emotional stories; they are meant to delve into autobiography. Thus, by allowing complicated conversations in the classrooms, we are not only giving students an opportunity to take responsibility of their own learning, but to connect to their learning and to the curriculum through their own autobiographical narratives. Yet, complete understanding requires more than autobiography; it requires allegory. Pinar (2011) cites allegory as more than the mere exchange of information and stories, but the ability to reflect on the information and finding meaning in the present from the stories of the past (50). In terms of allegory’s connection to autobiography, Pinar (2011) furthers the conversation by adding that â€Å"[h]istorical facts are primary, but it is facts’ capacity to invoke our imagination that marks them as allegorical, Their meaning is not confined to the past where they occurred; they spill into our existence of the present†¦history becomes accessible through allegory† (54). Thus, historical facts and autobiographical narratives, although interesting, carry little significance without the use of allegory. Historians are continuously pleading with the world to heed to lessons of history, but these requests often go unanswered until the moment when something occurs in the present day which recalls the experiences of the past. At this point, history is explored in relation to the present reality, invoking allegory as it brings meaning to the present. Through the concept of complicated conversation, autobiography and allegory exist as a circular movement as the process repeats itself with each new piece of information. Through this dialogue with theory, ourselves, and others, we explore autobiographical narratives, which connect to our present selves through allegory, which in turn enlighten our experience of the present, rounding up our complicated conversation. In terms of my own complicated conversation, the concept of entering into curriculum theory through the concept of autobiography remains easy. As a history student, researching historical narratives are my forte. This interest in the past led me into a search of my family history. Consequently, I have visited places, and read notices, and held objects owned by my ancestors. Thus, reading Pinar’s (2011) suggestion that â€Å"we find the future not in the present, but in the past† (49) was an exciting moment during my dialogue with the text. At this point, I began thinking about my grandparents, about my childhood, and all those happy moments from my past, thinking that these moments, exactly as they were would lead me to the future. For a split second, Pinar had convinced me I held the key to my future because I knew my past. But, as previously discussed, this illusion was shattered instantaneously. The concept of allegory was a bit more complicated. As previously mentioned, through allegory, the stories reactivated from the past lead to significance, to a greater understanding and answer the question: â€Å"what might this knowledge signify for us as actually existing individuals in this time, in this place? † (Pinar, 2011, pp. 50-51). Thinking through autobiographical narratives, from my point of view, is easy. Thinking allegorically, is not. Yet, in terms of the contents of the chapter, the introduction of the Weimer Republic, a story from the past, as an allegory to better understand the present reality, I was reasonably able to understand the relationship and the significance. I could understand and reactivate the historical events of Weimer Germany, and place them in juxtaposition with today’s world, adequately using this allegory to further inform my understanding of the present and shape my view of the future. But, I did not feel like I could end my conversation there. The text led me to my dead Grandmother, my lucid Grandpere, I could not simply leave them in the middle of a conversation. This chapter meant more to me than a simple explanation of theories in order to set up for the remainder of the book. As Pinar (2011) himself notes, â€Å"[t]he curricular question is a call to individuality†¦[as]†¦academic knowledge is also a question of self-knowledge† (57). In other words, I was not content leaving the conversation solely as a discussion of the past Weimer and its meaning for today. It affected me at a personal level, as I weaved parts of my own autobiographical narrative into the words and theories on paper. I did more than just read the words on the paper; I entered into a complicated conversation and was committed to following through this process to the end, from autobiography to allegory. But, as I mentioned, I had a hard time working through the concept of allegory. How could I turn my memories of my Grandmother, or my Grandpere, into something meaningful for my present, to lead me into my future? Something meaningful to inform my experience with currere, with the running the course? How do these experiences affect me as a student, as a teacher, or as an individual? How can they be something more than sometimes pleasant, sometimes not so pleasant, memories? Just as I begin to panic, realizing that this conversation is drawing to a close as the remaining pages of the chapter become fewer and fewer, Pinar (2011) opens up and speaks directly to me again: â€Å"†¦educators are engaged in an ongoing conversation. As in any conversation, one discerns misunderstanding, can supplement incomplete comprehension, and support questioning† (55). A sigh of relief emerges as I am comforted with the fact that this conversation is ongoing and does not end with the last sentence in the chapter. I am further comforted knowing that I do not have to immediately come to a complete understanding, can continue to question, and even leave a little room to make mistakes and revisit the original discussion. This entire experience reinforces for me, the notion that curriculum is not just the textbooks we read and the tests we take, but everything we experience, both in and outside the classroom. I am convinced that these memories are part of my curriculum, my autobiography, and that I will take them with me on my running of the course, and one day, maybe, I will find an allegory and move them beyond the past and into the present.

Technology In America Essays - Diploma, Documents, Qualifications

Technology In America How Technology Effects Modern America U.S. Wage Trends The microeconomic picture of the U.S. has changed immensely since 1973, and the trends are proving to be consistently downward for the nation's high school graduates and high school drop-outs. ?Of all the reasons given for the wage squeeze ? international competition, technology, deregulation, the decline of unions and defense cuts ? technology is probably the most critical. It has favored the educated and the skilled,? says M. B. Zuckerman, editor-in-chief of U.S. News & World Report (7/31/95). Since 1973, wages adjusted for inflation have declined by about a quarter for high school dropouts, by a sixth for high school graduates, and by about 7% for those with some college education. Only the wages of college graduates are up. Of the fastest growing technical jobs, software engineering tops the list. Carnegie Mellon University reports, ?recruitment of it's software engineering students is up this year by over 20%.? All engineering jobs are paying well, proving that highly skilled labor is what employers want! ?There is clear evidence that the supply of workers in the [unskilled labor] categories already exceeds the demand for their services,? says L. Mishel, Research Director of Welfare Reform Network. In view of these facts, I wonder if these trends are good or bad for society. ?The danger of the information age is that while in the short run it may be cheaper to replace workers with technology, in the long run it is potentially self-destructive because there will not be enough purchasing power to grow the economy,? M. B. Zuckerman. My feeling is that the trend from unskilled labor to highly technical, skilled labor is a good one! But, political action must be taken to ensure that this societal evolution is beneficial to all of us. ?Back in 1970, a high school diploma could still be a ticket to the middle income bracket, a nice car in the driveway and a house in the suburbs. Today all it gets is a clunker parked on the street, and a dingy apartment in a low rent building,? says Time Magazine (Jan 30, 1995 issue). However, in 1970, our government provided our children with a free education, allowing the vast majority of our population to earn a high school diploma. This means that anyone, regardless of family income, could be educated to a level that would allow them a comfortable place in the middle class. Even restrictions upon child labor hours kept children in school, since they are not allowed to work full time while under the age of 18. This government policy was conducive to our economic markets, and allowed our country to prosper from 1950 through 1970. Now, our own prosperity has moved us into a highly technical world, that requires highly skilled labor. The natural answer to this problem, is that the U.S. Government's education policy must keep pace with the demands of the highly technical job market. If a middle class income of 1970 required a high school diploma, and the middle class income of 1990 requires a college diploma, then it should be as easy for the children of the 90's to get a college diploma, as it was for the children of the 70's to get a high school diploma. This brings me to the issue of our country's political process, in a technologically advanced world. Voting & Poisoned Political Process in The U.S. The advance of mass communication is natural in a technologically advanced society. In our country's short history, we have seen the development of the printing press, the radio, the television, and now the Internet; all of these, able to reach millions of people. Equally natural, is the poisoning and corruption of these medias, to benefit a few. *From the 1950's until today, television has been the preferred media. Because it captures the minds of most Americans, it is the preferred method of persuasion by political figures, multinational corporate advertising, and the upper 2% of the elite, who have an interest in controlling public opinion. Newspapers and radio experienced this same history, but are now somewhat obsolete in the science of changing public opinion. Though I do not suspect television to become completely obsolete within the next 20 years,

The History of Basketball †Fitness Research Paper

The History of Basketball – Fitness Research Paper Free Online Research Papers The History of Basketball Fitness Research Paper Dr. James Naismith came up with the idea of basketball in Springfield, Massachusetts, 1891. Dr. Luther Gulick, head of Physical Education at the International Young Men’s Christian Association Training School, ordered Naismith to create an indoor game that would provide a distraction for students throughout the winter. He developed the original 13 rules and thus the game of basketball emerged. The first official game of basketball was believed to be played on December 21, 1891. Naismith’s gym class in Springfield, Massachusetts, played it. The equipment used to play the first game was a soccer ball, peach baskets, and nine players to each team. Since then, there have been major changes to the game. The court dimensions for any basketball court have not changed very much. The sideline, the line where the bench and stands are, is ninety-four feet long. The baseline, line underneath the hoop, is fifty feet long. The three-point line is nineteen feet, nine inches from the hoop. The free throw line is fifteen feet from the hoop. The hoop is ten feet above the ground. Each basket is worth two points, foul shots are worth one point, and of course the three-point shot from outside the three-point line. Adding to the original 13 rules to basketball, we now have quite a few more. The rules started to change about two years after the original 13 were developed. The first rule changes were the four fundamental principles of the game. Players with the ball must not make progress, the goal is above the head of the players, roughness is eliminated, and a player may not receive the ball by use of contact, these are the four fundamental principles. Five players were allowed on the court from each team after 1897 since the original nine were too many players to have on the court at one time. Players were allowed unlimited fouls up till 1908 when the five foul limit was adopted. Once a player reached the foul limit they were removed from the rest of the game. The next two rules were changes of equipment. Glass backboards replaced the wood ones, and a basketball was invented, so the soccer balls were no longer needed. In 1906, the hoops were changed from peach baskets to metal baskets. The metal baskets had a hole in the middle and a pole was used to hit the ball out of the hoop. Climbing a ladder was originally how the ball was retrieved after a shot was made. Finally, in 1913, the hoops we have today were developed, the metal rims and net. This was the last edition to the equipment rule changes. The next major changes that helped to increase the speed of the game were the dribbling and shooting rules. Dribbling was allowed from the beginning; however you were not allowed to dribble in and take a shot. In 1934, this rule changed and we now have lay-ups and fast breaks. A jump ball is when the referee tosses the ball up at half court and two players jumped to win the ball out of the air. Jump balls were used for everything from fouls to some sort of play stoppage until 1937 when the uses of jump balls were eliminated. Free throws, otherwise known as foul shots, have been around since 1895, but it was only since 1923 that the person fouled had to shoot the foul shots. Anyone could shoot the foul shot, in which case teams had one player who specialized in foul shooting, this rule had to change because of disadvantages towards each team. Throughout the 1940’s, all different kinds of shots were developed. The jump shot was first brought into play, along with dunking. In addition to dunking, goaltending was right there to defend it. The game speed picked up immensely with all of the rule adaptations. To increase the game speed even more, the three-second rule was added along with a 24-second shot clock in the 1950’s. Another time change is the addition of the 10-second rule, which is used when the offense has the ball and is bringing the ball up the court. The ten seconds is how long they have to bring the ball across mid-court. These new rules went against the offense so that they could not stall the ball. The final rule change to help the game was the three-point line and three-point shot which were introduced to the game in the 1960’s. There were a number of basketball leagues throughout the years. However, most of them were unsuccessful after so many seasons. The first basketball league was the National Basketball League (NBL), which developed in 1898. The first professional league was the American Basketball League (ABL) which formed in 1925. In 1936, basketball was recognized as an Olympic Team. The National Basketball Association (NBA), which is still exists today, was formed in 1949. The Basketball Association of America and the National Basketball League combined to form the NBA. The NBA had seventeen teams in three divisions. The last league to develop was the American Basketball Association (ABA) nicknamed the Lively League. The ABA existed for nine seasons from 1967-1976. This league differed from every other league because they used red, white, and blue colored basketballs. The ABA was more of a show league then anything else. The ABA and NBA were rival leagues. In June 1976, the rivalry ceased. The leagues joined together. The four strongest ABA teams survived the merger. The teams were the New York Nets, Denver Nuggets, Indiana Pacers, and San Antonio Spurs. The other ABA teams vanished along with the league itself. Julius â€Å"Dr.J† Erving, (one of the most well known basketball players in his day) played in ABA before the merge. Women’s basketball was always around but was not a popular event for men to watch. After Naismith invented basketball, a girl’s school nearby caught on and started to play as well. The woman who started women’s basketball was Senda Berenson, a teacher of physical education at Smith College. Berenson thought that there should also be a separate set of rules for women. She devised a few rules. She divided the court in to three sections. For a five-woman team, there were two shooting guards, one center, and two forwards. The shooting guards scored all the points, the center distributed the ball to the guards, and the forwards played defense and passed the rebounds they got to the center. Playing defense on a nine-woman team were two forwards and a goal keeper. On offense there were two guards and a goal guard. In the center section there were three centers, a forward center, back center, and jumping center. In contrast to men’s basketball, the women were allowed three dribbles a piece, than could hold the ball for three seconds before passing it to a teammate. If the player took more dribbles, or held the ball longer then three seconds a foul was called. The first set of rules for women’s basketball was published in 1901. The rules followed with Berenson’s original idea. Snatching or batting the ball was not permitted and was considered a foul. Also, the court was divided up in three sections. The number of players on the court ranged from 5-10 due to how big the gym was. In 1903, the rules changed again. The number of players now ranged from 6-9. Play was stopped constantly during basketball games because of the fouls and the hoop. The hoop still had a basket with a bottom on it. The open net hoops were against the rules for fear of the ball going through the nets so quickly the officials will not know if the team scored or not. Every time a player was fouled; it lead to a foul shot. If someone held the ball too long, stepped out of bounds, or even double-teamed a player who was attempting to shoot got a foul called on them and a foul shot was awarded to the other team. To keep the game more feminine, the rules committee suggested making sure the women were not using slang, chewing gum, or sitting on the floor and that their appearance was acceptable. Unsportsmanlike conduct was introduced to prevent kicking, hair pulling, and slapping, any display of temper was to be considered a foul. If the coaches shouted at one of the players, whether good or bad, it was considered to be a foul. I believe this is where we get the technical foul rule used today. The dribbling rule was eliminated in 1910 but restored in 1913 because of complaints that the game was boring. Defensive restrictions were also made. The two-handed, overhead pass and shot was perfected because it was very hard to block. Defensive players had to remain in a vertical plane and could not lean over because it gave them an advantage for blocking shots and passes. For a time, the two-handed, overhead shot was only worth one point instead of two points because it was impossible to block without breaking the vertical plane. Women of all ages started to play basketball. The sport was becoming very popular for younger girls. Basketball was started to be played in high school, as well as college. However, women did not have an official league to play in after college. For a while, they did not have an Olympic team either. The Olympic team developed in the 1970s. All women who had a lot of talent played in the Olympics. That is until April 24, 1996, when the NBA introduced the idea of having the Women’s National Basketball Association. The WNBA began playing in June of 1997. Sheryl Swoopes, Rebecca Lobo, and Lisa Leslie were the first players to sign with the WNBA in October 1996. Other member of the Olympic Gold Medal team also joined the WNBA. To start the league, there were eight teams, and those eight teams still exist today. Basketball has come far from the first game in 1891. Many men and women have made names for themselves over the years. Some of the best players in basketball consist of Michael Jordan, Larry Bird, Patrick Ewing, and Magic Johnson just to name a few. Sheryl Swoopes, Susie McConnell, Cynthia Cooper, Lisa Leslie, and Rebecca Lobo are some of the best players to have played in the WNBA. Along with these greats, there are many aspiring basketball players out there who will make a name for their selves in years to come. Bahr, Lauren S. (1995). Collier’s Encyclopedia: Basketball. Connecticut, P.F. Collier, Inc. Internet source www.hoophallhistory.com. Chernow, Barbara A. (1993). The Columbia Encyclopedia: Basketball. New York, Columbia University Press. Internet source www.hoophallhistory.com. Halsey, William D. (1975). Merit Student Encyclopedia: Basketball. New Jersey, Macmillian Company Inc. Internet source www.hoophallhistory.com. Lannin, Joanne. (2000) A History of Basketball for Girls and Women: From Bloomers to Big Leagues. Minnesota, Lerner Publishing Group. Morse, Joseph. (1973). Funk Wagnalls New Encyclopedia: Basketball. New York, Funk Wagnalls Inc. Internet source www.hoophallhistory.com. National Collegiate Athletic Association. (1999). Original Rules of Basketball. Internet source www.ncaa.org/champadmin/basketball/original_rules.html. Nix, Charlie. (2000). Skills, Drills Strategies for Basketball. Holcomb Hathaway Publishers, Inc. Section 2 The Game (pp. 24-25). Arizona. Shashi, Tom. (1998). Basketball History. Internet source www.geocities.com/fruitfax/basketballhistory.htm. Research Papers on The History of Basketball - Fitness Research PaperThe Hockey GameTrailblazing by Eric AndersonMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductPETSTEL analysis of IndiaCapital PunishmentStandardized TestingCanaanite Influence on the Early Israelite ReligionThe Project Managment Office SystemQuebec and CanadaHip-Hop is Art

CIF Contracts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

CIF Contracts - Essay Example This law essay outlines peculiar features of CIF contracts. Cost, insurance and freight (CIF) denotes that the vendor delivers when the products pass the ship's bar in the port of consignment. A CIF contract needs the seller to ship at the port of consignment the required products in the underlying agreement of sale, to acquire a agreement of carriage (bill of lading) under which the products will be delivered to the established destination, to organize for insurance that will be obtainable for the advantage of the buyer, to formulate a commercial invoice and lastly to tender these papers to the purchaser who must be prepared and willing to pay the cost of the consigned products. In such a scenario, the ownership of the products may pass either on consignment or on delivery of the documents. The risk normally passes on consignments or as from shipments, but ownership does not pass pending the documents which symbolizes the products are provided in exchange for the cost. As an outcome , the purchaser, after acceptance of the documents, can claim against the transporter for infringement of the agreement of carriage and against the underwriter for any loss enclosed by the policy. In accordance to a CIF contract, the buyer is required to pay against the tender of a genuine bill of lading that guarantees the products contracted to be sold, an insurance document and a saleable invoice that indicates the price.4 The buyer is obliged to make payment against the tender of the respective papers of contract notwithstanding of fact that the products have been damaged or lost at maritime after the shipment.5 In the incident of loss, such as case of study, the buyer (N&Y Ltd) must pay the value on provision of the documents and necessary remedies, if any, will be against the transporter as indicated in the bill of lading or aligned to the underwriter as per the insurance agreement, but not against the seller (A&W Ltd) under the agreement of sale. If the purchaser declines to pay (as indicated in this case) against the papers without any legal justification, the buyer shall be legally responsible to compensate the seller for damage that may outcome, as enacted in Article 150 within the Commercial Transactions Law (Meiselles 2013). Under a CIF agreement, the seller performs the requirements by providing the documents to the buyer. The seller is not required to deliver the products to the agreed destination but the seller is under a negative responsibility not to avert the goods from being delivered to the buyer at their premises. This might be executed by deterring the carrier from delivering products to the buyer or by transferring them to a diverse destination (Meiselles 2013). However, if the agreement contains a section that imposes on the seller an obligation to transport the products to the contracted destination, it is not regarded as a CIF agreement, even if the documents of ‘CIF’ emerge in the contract.   Not all agreements that ar e expressed to be CIF agreements are such. According to Article 155 of the Commercial Transactions Law,6 it is stated that ’a contract which encloses such status as will make the seller accountable for